3D Printing for the OR

Three-dimensional (3D) printing, also known as additive manufacturing, has significantly impacted the surgical field by enabling the creation of patient-specific models, implants, and instruments that enhance surgical precision and outcomes. These advancements enable more precise pre-surgical planning and personalized interventions, transforming how clinicians operate in the OR (Hoang et al., 2016).

Among its most impactful applications, 3D-printed anatomical models have been widely used in pre-surgical planning, particularly for complex procedures. Nearly every part of the human body has been replicated, providing surgeons with valuable tools for study and rehearsal before performing procedures (Ballard et al., 2018; Hoang et al., 2016). Traditionally, surgeons have relied on two-dimensional (2D) imaging and their clinical experience to plan operations. However, converting imaging data into a 3D model offers a more intuitive and comprehensive understanding of patient-specific anatomy (Ballard et al., 2018). Using 3D printing, lifelike models are created to enable surgeons to visualize and even rehearse surgical interventions, often leading to improved strategies and reduced surprises in the OR. Empirical studies have consistently demonstrated that integrating 3D models into surgical planning enhances outcomes, with reports showing improved accuracy and reduced operative times (Tack et al., 2016).

The efficiency of surgical procedures is notably increased when surgeons prepare using patient-specific models. In orthopedic trauma cases, research found that implementing 3D-printed models reduced average operative time by approximately 20% and decreased intraoperative blood loss by 25% compared to conventional planning methods (Morgan et al., 2020). Furthermore, a recent cost analysis indicated that using 3D-printed anatomical models saved 62 minutes of operating room time per case, equating to approximately $3,700 in cost savings per surgery (Ballard et al., 2020). These time savings not only enhance efficiency but also diminish the duration patients spend under anesthesia, improving patient safety. Additionally, 3D models are effective tools for patient education, offering a tangible representation of the relevant anatomy and the planned procedure (Ballard et al., 2018).​

3D printing technology also enables the design and fabrication of implants tailored precisely to an individual’s anatomical and pathological characteristics. Traditionally, surgeons have been constrained to using standard implants in limited sizes, which may not perfectly fit every patient’s unique anatomy. A prominent example is observed in craniofacial surgery, where computed tomography (CT) scans of a skull defect can be utilized to create a titanium implant that accurately restores the patient’s original skull contour (Martelli et al., 2016). Such personalized implants have been employed in complex reconstructions involving the head, spine, and limbs, particularly in cases where standard implants proved inadequate (Kadakia et al., 2020). In scenarios such as orthopedic oncology or severe trauma, 3D printing facilitates the replacement of substantial bone segments with implants that conform precisely to the patient’s unique geometry, thereby potentially enhancing functional outcomes and reducing the chance that the patient will need to return to the OR for further correction. Preliminary clinical reports are promising, indicating that custom implants have enabled limb-sparing surgeries and anatomically precise joint replacements that would have been challenging or unfeasible with conventional implants (Kadakia et al., 2020).​

3D printing has become a transformative tool in the modern OR, offering unparalleled precision, customization, and efficiency. This technology enhances preoperative planning, reduces intraoperative risks, and improves surgical outcomes across multiple specialties by enabling the creation of patient-specific anatomical models, implants, and surgical guides. Challenges such as cost, regulatory considerations, and material limitations remain, but ongoing advancements in biocompatible materials, faster printing techniques, and regulatory frameworks will likely facilitate broader clinical adoption. As technology continues to evolve, 3D printing is poised to revolutionize surgery further, paving the way for increasingly personalized and efficient medical interventions.

References

1. Ballard, D. H., Trace, A. P., Ali, S., Hodgdon, T., Zygmont, M. E., DeBenedectis, C. M., & Lenchik, L. (2018). Clinical applications of 3D printing: Primer for radiologists. Academic Radiology, 25(1), 52–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acra.2017.08.004
2. Ballard, D. H., Mills, P., Duszak, R. Jr., Weisman, J. A., Rybicki, F. J., & Woodard, P. K. (2020). Medical 3D printing cost-savings in orthopedic and maxillofacial surgery: Cost analysis of operating room time saved with 3D printed anatomic models and surgical guides. Academic Radiology, 27(8), 1103–1113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acra.2020.02.012
3. Hajnal, B., Pokorni, A. J., Turbucz, M., Bereczki, F., Bartos, M., Lazáry, Á., & Eltes, P. E. (2025). Clinical applications of 3D printing in spine surgery: A systematic review. European Spine Journal, 34(2), 454–471. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00586-025-07241-9
4. Hoang, D., Perrault, D., Stevanovic, M., & Ghiassi, A. (2016). Surgical applications of three-dimensional printing: A review of current literature & how to get started. Annals of Translational Medicine, 4(23), 456. https://doi.org/10.21037/atm.2016.12.18
5. Kadakia, R. J., Wixted, C. M., Allen, N. B., Hanselman, A. E., & Adams, S. B. (2020). Clinical applications of custom 3D-printed implants in complex lower extremity reconstruction. 3D Printing in Medicine, 6(1), 29. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41205-020-00075-2
6. Martelli, N., Serrano, C., van den Brink, H., Pineau, J., Prognon, P., Borget, I., & El Batti, S. (2016). Advantages and disadvantages of three-dimensional printing in surgery: A systematic review. Surgery, 159(6), 1485–1500. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surg.2015.12.017
7. Morgan, C., Khatri, C., Hanna, S. A., Ashrafian, H., & Sarraf, K. M. (2020). Use of three-dimensional printing in preoperative planning in orthopedic trauma surgery: A systematic review and meta-analysis. World Journal of Orthopaedics, 11(1), 57–66. https://doi.org/10.5312/wjo.v11.i1.57
8. Tack, P., Victor, J., Gemmel, P., & Annemans, L. (2016). 3D-printing techniques in a medical setting: A systematic literature review. BioMedical Engineering OnLine, 15(1), 115. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12938-016-0236-4